Factors Affecting the Effectiveness of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Practices in Public Primary Schools in Machakos County, Kenya

Abstract

Background: Enhancing learning outcomes, lowering absenteeism, and promoting child health all depend on having access to clean water, suitable sanitary infrastructure, and good hand hygiene practices. Even with countrywide initiatives to improve WASH conditions, such as the National School Health Policy, there are still persistent gaps. Less than 40% of rural schools nationwide reliably supply soap and clean water. Semi-arid regions like Mavoko Sub-County are particularly affected by water scarcity, inadequate sanitation, and a lack of hygiene education. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the variables influencing the efficacy of WASH practices in Machakos County’s public primary schools. The study aimed to evaluate student hand hygiene practices, analyse individual and socio-behavioural factors influencing WASH practices, evaluate contextual and structural factors associated with hygiene behaviours, and assess the availability, accessibility, and sufficiency of WASH infrastructure. Methodology: A descriptive cross-sectional design using a mixed-methods approach was adopted. Data were collected from 381 pupils and 9 headteachers sampled across 9 public primary schools. Structured questionnaires, observation checklists, and key informant interviews were used. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and chi-square tests, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. Results: Findings revealed that 52.2% of pupils reported adequate hand hygiene practices, while only 50.9% accessed clean and well-maintained sanitation facilities. Inconsistent water supply and inadequate soap availability were common. Significant associations were found between WASH practices and factors such as gender, age, hygiene knowledge, and the presence of health clubs (p < 0.05). Qualitative insights highlighted the importance of teacher involvement, peer role models, and parental support. Conclusion and Recommendations: The study recommends that the Ministry of Education, school administrators, and development partners increase budget allocations for WASH supplies, strengthen hygiene education programs, improve infrastructure maintenance, and promote community engagement to enhance the effectiveness of school-based WASH practices.